Disinformation and Science Disinformation's tools emerged from science and art. And furthermore: disinformation can happen in politics of course, but also in science: for example by launching ideas which have not been proven exactly until the moment of publication. e.g. the thought that time runs backwards in parts of the universe: http://www.newscientist.com/ns/19991127/newsstory3.html

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The history of propaganda Thinking of propaganda some politicians' names are at once remembered, like Caesar, Napoleon, Adolf Hitler, Joseph Stalin or Saddam Hussein. The history of propaganda has to tell then merely mentioning those names:

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1950: The Turing Test Alan Turing, an English mathematician and logician, advocated the theory that eventually computers could be created that would be capable of human thought. To cut through the long philosophical debate about exactly how to define thinking he proposed the "imitation game" (1950), now known as Turing test. His test consisted of a person asking questions via keyboard to both a person and an intelligent machine within a fixed time frame. After a series of tests the computers success at "thinking" could be measured by its probability of being misidentified as the human subject. Still today Turing's papers on the subject are widely acknowledged as the foundation of research in artificial intelligence.

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Artificial intelligence approaches Looking for ways to create intelligent machines, the field of artificial intelligence (AI) has split into several different approaches based on the opinions about the most promising methods and theories. The two basic AI approaches are: bottom-up and top-down. The bottom-up theory suggests that the best way to achieve artificial intelligence is to build electronic replicas of the human brain's complex network of neurons (through neural networks and parallel computing) while the top-down approach attempts to mimic the brain's behavior with computer programs (for example expert systems).

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Fuzzy logic A superset of Boolean logic (George Boole) introduced by Lotfi Zadeh in the 1960s as a means to model the uncertainty of natural language. Fuzzy logic is a type of logic that recognizes more than simple true and false values. It represents a departure from classical two-valued sets and logic, that use "soft" linguistic (e.g. large, small, hot, cold, warm) system variables and a continuous range of truth values in the interval [0,1], rather than strict binary (true or false) decisions and assignments.

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World Wide Web (WWW) Probably the most significant Internet service, the World Wide Web is not the essence of the Internet, but a subset of it. It is constituted by documents that are linked together in a way you can switch from one document to another by simply clicking on the link connecting these documents. This is made possible by the Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML), the authoring language used in creating World Wide Web-based documents. These so-called hypertexts can combine text documents, graphics, videos, sounds, and Java applets, so making multimedia content possible. Especially on the World Wide Web, documents are often retrieved by entering keywords into so-called search engines, sets of programs that fetch documents from as many servers as possible and index the stored information. (For regularly updated lists of the 100 most popular words that people are entering into search engines, click here). No search engine can retrieve all information on the whole World Wide Web; every search engine covers just a small part of it. Among other things that is the reason why the World Wide Web is not simply a very huge database, as is sometimes said, because it lacks consistency. There is virtually almost infinite storage capacity on the Internet, that is true, a capacity, which might become an almost everlasting too, a prospect, which is sometimes consoling, but threatening too. According to the Internet domain survey of the Internet Software Consortium the number of Internet host computers is growing rapidly. In October 1969 the first two computers were connected; this number grows to 376.000 in January 1991 and 72,398.092 in January 2000. World Wide Web History Project, http://www.webhistory.org/home.html http://www.searchwords.com/ http://www.islandnet.com/deathnet/ http://www.salonmagazine.com/21st/feature/199...

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